Thus we find constant cycles of alliances, marriages and wars between these states [Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age. The third war of the Diadochi broke out because of the growing power and ambition of Antigonus. It included a diverse population estimated at fifty to sixty million people. Hellenistic culture was at its height of world influence in the Hellenistic period. Perdiccas himself would become regent (epimeletes) of the empire, and Meleager his lieutenant. The Celts who settled in Galatia came through Thrace under the leadership of Leotarios and Leonnorios c. 270 BC. Hellenistic armies were significantly larger than those of classical Greece relying increasingly on Greek mercenaries (misthophoroi; men-for-pay) and also on non-Greek soldiery such as Thracians, Galatians, Egyptians and Iranians. This had already been a feature of Macedonian kingship, which had priestly duties. [47] Emporion contained a mixed population of Greek colonists and Iberian natives, and although Livy and Strabo assert that they lived in different quarters, these two groups were eventually integrated. [107] The preservation of many classical and archaic works of art and literature (including the works of the three great classical tragedians, Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides) are due to the efforts of the Hellenistic Greeks. A pretext for war was provided by Philip's refusal to end his war with Attalid Pergamum and Rhodes, both Roman allies. The Nabatean Kingdom was an Arab state located between the Sinai Peninsula and the Arabian Peninsula. The first of the Diadochi wars broke out when Perdiccas planned to marry Alexander's sister Cleopatra and began to question Antigonus I Monophthalmus' leadership in Asia Minor. In spite of the Ptolemaic monies and fleets backing their endeavors, Athens and Sparta were defeated by Antigonus II during the Chremonidean War (267–261 BC). [25] A large number of the Macedonian population had also been resettled abroad by Alexander or had chosen to emigrate to the new eastern Greek cities. After the death of Menander (c. 130 BC), the Kingdom appears to have fragmented, with several 'kings' attested contemporaneously in different regions. Polyperchon’s position was weak, and he was soon ousted by the able, up-and-coming Cassander. The interest in history that characterized this age was also a great contributor to the importance of art created. One man, Alexander, King of Macedonia, a Greek-speaker, is responsible for this blending of cultures. Pyrrhus was about to embark on his ill-starred expedition to Italy, where he soundly defeated the growing power of Rome but at an enormous cost to himself. For four years (315–311) they fought indecisively. [4] Eventually, instability in the near east resulting from the power vacuum left by the collapse of the Seleucid Empire caused the Roman proconsul Pompey the Great to abolish the Seleucid rump state, absorbing much of Syria into the Roman Republic. The Bosporans had long lasting trade contacts with the Scythian peoples of the Pontic-Caspian steppe, and Hellenistic influence can be seen in the Scythian settlements of the Crimea, such as in the Scythian Neapolis. 250 BC), a student of Herophilos, a new medical sect emerged, the Empiric school, which was based on strict observation and rejected unseen causes of the Dogmatic school. The result was the end of Macedon as a major power in the Mediterranean. Shortly afterwards, Rome became involved in Sicily, fighting against the Carthaginians in the First Punic War. This defeat allowed Pontus to invade and conquer the kingdom. It is not known whether Bahrain was part of the Seleucid Empire, although the archaeological site at Qalat Al Bahrain has been proposed as a Seleucid base in the Persian Gulf. It can be argued that some of the changes across the Macedonian Empire after Alexander's conquests and during the rule of the Diadochi would have occurred without the influence of Greek rule. They were defeated by Seleucus I in the 'battle of the Elephants', but were still able to establish a Celtic territory in central Anatolia. The kingdoms became so independent from Seleucid control that Antiochus III the Great waged war on them during his reign and replaced their rulers. Roman taxes were imposed, except in Athens and Sparta, and all the cities had to accept rule by Rome's local allies. [134] It has recently been claimed that a celestial globe based on Hipparchus' star catalog sits atop the broad shoulders of a large 2nd-century Roman statue known as the Farnese Atlas. In 307 BC he took Athens, expelling Demetrius of Phaleron, Cassander's governor, and proclaiming the city free again. Grecian influence mixed with local cultures within these dynasties and kingdoms led to a variety of styles and subject matter in Hellenistic art. Apart from these cities, there were also a large number of Seleucid garrisons (choria), military colonies (katoikiai) and Greek villages (komai) which the Seleucids planted throughout the empire to cement their rule. Green, Peter; Alexander to Actium, the historical evolution of the Hellenistic age, page 53. Especially important to Hellenistic science was the city of Alexandria in Egypt, which became a major center of scientific research in the 3rd century BC. The Hellenistic period was characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization which established Greek kingdoms in Asia and Africa. Cleopatra, the wife of Tigranes the Great, invited Greeks such as the rhetor Amphicrates and the historian Metrodorus of Scepsis to the Armenian court, and—according to Plutarch—when the Roman general Lucullus seized the Armenian capital, Tigranocerta, he found a troupe of Greek actors who had arrived to perform plays for Tigranes. Athens, Sparta and most cities in the Greek mainland did not see much religious change or new gods (with the exception of the Egyptian Isis in Athens),[116] while the multi-ethnic Alexandria had a very varied group of gods and religious practices, including Egyptian, Jewish and Greek. Greek science was advanced by the works of the mathematician Euclid and the polymath Archimedes. His son, Herod Archelaus, ruled from 4 BC to AD 6 when he was deposed for the formation of Roman Judea. The worship of dynastic ruler cults was also a feature of this period, most notably in Egypt, where the Ptolemies adopted earlier Pharaonic practice, and established themselves as god-kings. The Kushan Empire which followed continued to use Greek on their coinage and Greeks continued being influential in the empire. The language of Philip II's and Alexander's court and army (which was made up of various Greek and non-Greek speaking peoples) was a version of Attic Greek, and over time this language developed into Koine, the lingua franca of the successor states. The characteristics of the Hellenistic period include the division of Alexander's empire, the spread of Greek culture and language, and the flourishing of the arts, science and philosophy. The second Diadochi war began following the death of Antipater in 319 BC. [56][57][58][59] At the height of its power, it included central Anatolia, the Levant, Mesopotamia, Persia, today's Turkmenistan, Pamir, and parts of Pakistan. Southern Greece was now thoroughly brought into the Roman sphere of influence, though it retained nominal autonomy. [52] Promotion of immigration from Greece was important in the establishment of this system. An example that shows the spread of Greek theater is Plutarch's story of the death of Crassus, in which his head was taken to the Parthian court and used as a prop in a performance of The Bacchae. Philip II was a strong and expansionist king and he took every opportunity to expand Macedonian territory. The founding of new cities and military colonies continued to be a major part of the Successors' struggle for control of any particular region, and these continued to be centers of cultural diffusion. Mithridates was finally defeated by Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great) in 65 BC. [142] The female nude also became more popular as epitomized by the Aphrodite of Cnidos of Praxiteles and art in general became more erotic (e.g., Leda and the Swan and Scopa's Pothos). Further inland was the Illyrian Paeonian Kingdom and the tribe of the Agrianes. The royal palace (basileion) also came into its own during the Hellenistic period, the first extant example being the massive 4th-century villa of Cassander at Vergina. Cassander had her put to death, while keeping Rhoxane and Alexander IV under his protection—or guard. These cults were usually associated with a specific temple in honor of the ruler such as the Ptolemaieia at Alexandria and had their own festivals and theatrical performances. Antigonus fled for Greece, and then, together with Antipater and Craterus (the satrap of Cilicia who had been in Greece fighting the Lamian war) invaded Anatolia. Again, it is probably better to see these policies as a pragmatic response to the demands of ruling a large empire[111] than to any idealized attempt to bringing Greek culture to the 'barbarians'. [66] He then began expanding his influence into Pergamene territory in Asia and crossed into Europe, fortifying Lysimachia on the Hellespont, but his expansion into Anatolia and Greece was abruptly halted after a decisive defeat at the Battle of Magnesia (190 BC). Hellenistic-era warships grew from the trireme to include more banks of oars and larger numbers of rowers and soldiers as in the Quadrireme and Quinquereme. The Numidian royal monument at Chemtou is one example of Numidian Hellenized architecture. Seleucus was left out. The Orientalizing period was characterized by. At least some Scythians seem to have become Hellenized, because we know of conflicts between the elites of the Scythian kingdom over the adoption of Greek ways. His edicts appear carved on rocks and a number of free-standing pillars which are found right across India. [109] Antioch was founded as a metropolis and center of Greek learning which retained its status into the era of Christianity. Though this comparison is now seen as unfair and meaningless, it has been noted that even commentators of the time saw the end of a cultural era which could not be matched again. Another important source, Plutarch's (c. AD 50 – c. 120) Parallel Lives although more preoccupied with issues of personal character and morality, outlines the history of important Hellenistic figures. It was not until the reign of Phraates I (c. 176–171 BC), that the Arsacids would again begin to assert their independence.[75]. Finally, in 27 BC, Augustus directly annexed Greece to the new Roman Empire as the province of Achaea. After Demetrius' death, civil wars between Bactrian kings in India allowed Apollodotus I (from c. 180/175 BC) to make himself independent as the first proper Indo-Greek king (who did not rule from Bactria). The renewal of the historiographical approach as well as some recent discoveries, such as the tombs of Vergina, allow a better appreciation of this period's artistic richness. In 215 BC Philip, with his eye on Illyria, formed an alliance with Rome's enemy Hannibal of Carthage, which led to Roman alliances with the Achaean League, Rhodes and Pergamum. The Hellenistic period covers the period of Mediterranean history between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire, as signified by the Battle of Actium in 31 BC[1] and the conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt the following year. Buy History, Culture, and Religion of the Hellenistic Age: History, Culture and Religion of the Hellenistic Age v. 1 2nd ed. In this political climate, Hellenistic philosophers went in search of goals such as ataraxia (un-disturbedness), autarky (self-sufficiency), and apatheia (freedom from suffering), which would allow them to wrest well-being or eudaimonia out of the most difficult turns of fortune. Meleager and the infantry supported the candidacy of Alexander's half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus, while Perdiccas, the leading cavalry commander, supported waiting until the birth of Alexander's child by Roxana. Many supposed kings in India are known only because of coins bearing their name. Some areas of the conquered world were more affected by Greek influences than others. In 305 BC, he declared himself King Ptolemy I, later known as "Soter" (saviour) for his role in helping the Rhodians during the siege of Rhodes. After the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), Greece had fallen under a Spartan hegemony, in which Sparta was pre-eminent but not all-powerful. Armenia later became a vassal state of the Seleucid Empire, but it maintained a considerable degree of autonomy, retaining its native rulers. Independent city states were unable to compete with Hellenistic kingdoms and were usually forced to ally themselves to one of them for defense, giving honors to Hellenistic rulers in return for protection. [131] Known as the "Father of Geography", Eratosthenes also created the first map of the world incorporating parallels and meridians, based on the available geographical knowledge of the era. Claessen & Skalník (editors), The Early State, page 428. The most interesting, as well as the most important, feature of the Hellenistic age is the diffusion of Hellenic culture—the “Hellenizing” of the Orient. He once again laid siege to Athens after they turned on him, but then struck a treaty with the Athenians and Ptolemy, which allowed him to cross over to Asia Minor and wage war on Lysimachus' holdings in Ionia, leaving his son Antigonus Gonatas in Greece. While there does seem to have been a substantial decline in religiosity, this was mostly reserved for the educated classes.[122]. The Ptolemaic Tessarakonteres was the largest ship constructed in Antiquity. The Seleucids for example took on Apollo as patron, the Antigonids had Herakles, and the Ptolemies claimed Dionysus among others.[119]. In Arabia, Bahrain, which was referred to by the Greeks as Tylos, the centre of pearl trading, when Nearchus came to discover it serving under Alexander the Great. Antipater was made regent of the Empire, and the two kings were moved to Macedon. [109] Seleucia replaced Babylon as the metropolis of the lower Tigris. As the Greek and Levantine cultures mingled, the development of a hybrid Hellenistic culture began, and persisted even when isolated from the main centres of Greek culture (for instance, in the Greco-Bactrian kingdom). However the socio-political changes brought on by the conquest of the Persian empire and Greek emigration abroad meant that change also came to religious practices. Greek dedications, statues, architecture, and inscriptions have all been found. His generals had to be content with the office of governor. Get exclusive access to content from our 1768 First Edition with your subscription. Epicurus promoted atomism and an asceticism based on freedom from pain as its ultimate goal. Against these dogmatic schools of philosophy the Pyrrhonist school embraced philosophical skepticism, and, starting with Arcesilaus, Plato's Academy also embraced skepticism in the form of Academic Skepticism. Bolos of Mendes made developments in alchemy and Theophrastus was known for his work in plant classification. The ancient Georgian kingdoms had trade relations with the Greek city-states on the Black Sea coast such as Poti and Sukhumi. Brennus pushed down into Greece but was repulsed by the Aetolians. Such as Ai-Khanoum, on trade routes, allowed Greek culture into Asia former empire, but it a. Generally characterized by the indigenous cultures, adopting local practices where beneficial, necessary, or.. 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